HMS Datasheets

Copper (Cu) is a soft, reddish metal which has been used for the production of a wide range of artefacts. Since the end of the Bronze Age it has been used primarily in the manufacture of decorative objects. Copper is obtained by smelting suitable ores and is most commonly used in the form of alloys; that is, other pure metals are added to produce new metals with different properties.

This datasheet includes details on ore sources and mines, smelting and copper alloy types.

Metals are crystalline materials that are good conductors of both electricity and heat; they are usually malleable, ductile and shiny. They are commonly divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metals; the former comprises iron and its alloys, and the latter includes all other metals. Non-ferrous metals are often divided into precious metals (gold, silver and their alloys) and base metals (all other metals). The range of properties displayed by metals has allowed their use in many applications, from currency and jewellery through tools and weapons to structural metal for buildings.

Even after investigation and publication, metallurgical samples offer a valuable resource for future researchers. Experience has shown that such material is too frequently lost. This datasheet provides guidance to ensure that samples are securely housed.

X-radiography is an imaging technique that has numerous applications in archaeology and archaeometallurgy. The primary uses are to examine
form, structure and condition of artefacts in order to provide identifications and descriptions. This datasheet concentrates on how X-radiography can contribute to the archaeometallurgical evidence, from metal preparation to waste products and artefacts.

The use of an instrument to determine the presence of particular elements in a material/sample. The range of elements which can be detected as well the accuracy, precision and sensitivity (limit of detection) vary widely between different instruments (see below).

This datasheet introduces the techniques used, and the concepts of precision, accuracy and sensitivity.

Metals and related materials provide a great deal of information on the ways in which they were manufactured and used. Some of this information can be gained from a simple visual examination of the objects. Supplementary information can be gained through a consideration of the chemical composition of the material (e.g. metal alloy type, impurities, etc) and some from the examination of the structure of the materials at a microscopic level.

The excavation of archaeological sites often yields a range of material evidence for metalworking. This datasheet is intended to provide an introduction to the post-excavation study of such evidence. The post-excavation process should in most cases be divided into an initial assessment stage which will identify any need for a full analysis stage.

Geophysical techniques have become a standard tool in archaeological fieldwork. This datasheet addresses both the recognition of metallurgical features within general surveys and the design of surveys to meet metallurgical purposes.

There is a clear distinction, both in the scale and type of remains, between metalworking on ‘early’ sites and later ‘industrial’ activity. In practice, this means some variation in approach between the examination of ‘greenfield’ and ‘brownfield’ sites.

Project management techniques are widely used to plan and monitor the progress of archaeological projects. Project management makes the aims, objectives, methods, timetable, risks and outcomes explicit. It is common to divide a project into a series of stages where the relevant aspects of the project can be reviewed and the project as a whole re-focused if necessary. Archaeological evidence for metallurgical activities is routinely encountered and effective archaeological project management needs to take this into account.