Evidence for past metalworking survives in the archaeological record in a number of different ways. Many of the larger metalworking sites survive as distinct landscape features due to the construction…
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Project management techniques are widely used to plan and monitor the progress of archaeological projects. Project management makes the aims, objectives, methods, timetable, risks and outcomes explicit. It is common…
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Geophysical techniques have become a standard tool in archaeological fieldwork. This datasheet addresses both the recognition of metallurgical features within general surveys and the design of surveys to meet metallurgical…
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The excavation of archaeological sites often yields a range of material evidence for metalworking. This datasheet is intended to provide an introduction to the post-excavation study of such evidence. The…
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Metals and related materials provide a great deal of information on the ways in which they were manufactured and used. Some of this information can be gained from a simple…
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The use of an instrument to determine the presence of particular elements in a material/sample. The range of elements which can be detected as well the accuracy, precision and sensitivity…
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X-radiography is an imaging technique that has numerous applications in archaeology and
archaeometallurgy. The primary uses are to examine form, structure and condition of artefacts in order to provide identifications…
Even after investigation and publication, metallurgical samples offer a valuable resource for future researchers. Experience has shown that such material is too frequently lost. This datasheet provides guidance to ensure…
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Metals are crystalline materials that are good conductors of both electricity and heat; they are usually malleable, ductile and shiny. They are commonly divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metals; the…
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Copper (Cu) is a soft, reddish metal which has been used for the production of a wide range of artefacts. Since the end of the Bronze Age it has been…
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Tin (Sn) is a soft, silvery-white metal which has been used for the production of a wide range of artefacts. Tin has occasionally been used on its own but most…
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This datasheet provides a brief introduction to the manufacture of several non-ferrous metals (zinc, mercury, antimony and arsenic) that have not been covered elsewhere in this series. The metals covered…
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The manufacture iron from its ores can be carried out using a variety of
smelting technologies. These can be broadly divided into the direct and indirect processes. The indirect process…
Although an important aspect of medieval and earlier societies, the manufacture of
steel was industrialised during the post-medieval period. Many complementary techniques were developed which often operated at the same…
This datasheet summarises blacksmithing proceses, buildings and residues.
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This datasheet summarises the history of foundries, their buildings and residues.
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Fuels for metallurgical and other industrial uses were derived from wood or from coal. The wood-based fuels comprised charcoal, white coal (kiln-dried wood) and fire-wood. Mineral coal was used either…
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Crucibles and moulds are fairly easy to recognise and their identification should alert the fieldworker to the presence of metalworking on site. This provides an early opportunity to link the…
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The purity of gold could be estimated by using a touchstone but the only effective way of determining the purity of silver was by assaying (see below). Whatever their purity,…
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Unlike all the other metals used in the past, iron was produced and worked only in the solid state. This technology is called the 'Direct Process' of iron manufacture, ie…
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There is no geophysical method dedicated to the location, identification and analysis of early metalworking sites. There has only been limited application of these techniques to the study of such…
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There are many variables in the
smelting process, including the ores, the
fuel and the clays used, the furnace construction, the method of blowing the furnace and the way in…
The
smelting of iron by the direct process results in a bloom, which must be refined to produce forgeable iron stock. Blooms produced from bog ores in a non-tapping furnace…
About 1500 currency bars and other forms of trade iron have been found in Britain, including two doublepointed ingots of continental type. Detailed examination of most of the 400 surviving…
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Identifying the nature and extent of metalworking processes on an archaeological site relies on adequate recovery and recording of the evidence of these activities. This sheet provides advice on how…
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Both types of hammerscale generally survive well in archaeological deposits and often retain their original metallic-lustrous sheen. They are generally too small to be recognised by the excavator, but can…
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Metallography requires the removal of small samples, which are then mounted in a resin or bakelite block, polished and etched in dilute acid, before examination under a metallurgical microscope. This…
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The composition of artefacts or samples can be determined by chemical analysis. The method of analysis chosen depends mainly on the answers needed. Some types of chemical analysis are quantitative,…
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X-radiography is a rapid imaging technique which is particularly useful for examining archaeological metalwork. The process is similar to conventional medical radiography and the two-dimensional negative image is usually produced…
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Even after investigation and publication, metallurgical samples offer a valuable resource for future researchers. Experience has shown that such material is too frequently lost. This data sheet provides guidance to…
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This datasheet is aimed at field workers in the early stages of projects, when the possibility of finding the remains of metalworking activity should be considered. The value of forward…
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